The Effect of Color on the Perception of Taste

When it comes to food, scientists have found that color really does influence a person’s perception of how a certain food tastes.  Without a doubt, the way a food looks can impact whether or not it is worth eating.  However, people also naturally make associations between color and the assumed flavor of a food.  For example, lemon can be associated with a sour lemon flavor as well as a sweet banana flavor, whereas red can be associated with a sweet cherry flavor or even a spicy pepper flavor.  Seeing a food that is colored a particular way causes us to make assumptions and expectations about how that food should taste even before we take a bite. 

Simply changing the color of a food can even cause people to perceive taste in a different way even without changing the flavor.  In an experiment by Hoegg and Alba (2007), participants were asked to taste test orange juice and identify their preferences, and the results showed that colors caused people to taste differences even when they didn’t exist.  The researchers looked at the effect of different characteristics on preference such as brand labels, color, and price, but they found that the color of a drink was the most influential on taste perception, even more so than information on the quality or the price of the product (Hoegg & Alba, 2007).  However, when they filled two cups with the same exact Tropicana orange juice, but dyed one darker with food coloring, participants reported a difference in taste between the two cups.  Simply put, “color dominated taste” (Hoegg & Alba, 2007). Yet, when the participants were given two cups of juice with the same color but containing different amounts of sugar, many participants were unable to taste the difference in sweetness.

Another prime example of the importance of color in relation to taste perception is the unsuccessful Heinz product, EZ Squirt ketchup, which came in various unappetizing colors including blue, green, purple, pink, orange, and teal (Jahnke 2007). These strangely colored products were designed to attract children; however, the fact that the taste didn’t match up with the color didn’t bode well with consumers.  Heinz later discontinued making the colorful ketchup because of the lack of popularity.   Clearly when our eyes see one thing and our taste buds experience another, it can be very misleading and confusing to our senses.

Nevertheless, there is logic behind our aversion to certain colors and our fondness for others – it was originally a method of survival. According to Jahnke’s article “The Influence of Color on Taste Perception,” the reason for our disliking for abnormally colored foods comes from our natural instinct to avoid rotten, spoiled, moldy, or poisonous foods, which often appear in colors of green, blue, or purple (Jahnke 2007).   Likewise, certain other colors can be attributed to more enticing flavors, such as bright red apples or an orange carrot.   Many food companies understand this and may add color to make their products look more appealing.  For example, butter is naturally white but is often died yellow exclusively for a more appetizing appearance (Jahnke 2007).

Overall, it can be concluded that our vision and color perception has a large impact on our ability to perceive taste.  Perhaps Dr. Seuss’s book Green Eggs and Ham has valid reasoning behind it after all!

Posted by: Katherine Travis

References:

Hoegg, J. & J. W. Alba. (2007). Taste perception: more than meets the tongue. Journal of Consumer Research.

Jahnke , M. (2007, March 19). The influence of color on taste perception. Interesting Thing of the Day. Retrieved on December 2, 2011, from http://itotd.com/articles/629/the-influence-of-color-on-taste-perception/.

University of Chicago Press Journals (2007, February 12). More than meets the tongue: color of a drink can fool the taste buds into thinking it is sweeter. ScienceDaily. Retrieved on December 2, 2011, from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/02/070212182136.htm.

Animals and Music: The “Universal Language”Animals and Music: The “Universal Language”

 Music can be considered a “universal language” of sorts because it is able to pervade language.  Surprisingly enough, evidence of music for humans has been found dating as far back 57,000 years ago when early Stone Age humans used flutes made of bone (Mapes, 2001).  However, according to the article, “Do Animals Have an Innate Sense of Music?,” humans may not be the only ones with the ability perceive music.  Some researchers believe that forms animal communication, with its rhythmic sounds and patterns, demonstrate an innate knowledge of music in animals such as birds and whales in addition to humans.  For example, whales use many of the same constructs of human music, when they communicate using their “whale songs.”  Whales songs have been found to have “rhythms, phrase lengths, and song structure”, which demonstrates their ability to instinctually “compose” their own form of music (Mapes, 2001).  The article also discusses the innate ability of birds to create melodies with “rhythmic patterns and pitches that are in tune with human music” and some are even able to “add a percussion instrument” to their bird songs (Mapes, 2001).  The major difference between bird and human music lies in their ability to create new melodies.  It is believed that while birds are able to recognize and understand their own songs, they are unable to create original and unique songs like humans do (Kenneally, 2003).

While some scientists believe that the sounds made by animals are strictly used as a biological function, biomusicologists argue otherwise.  Mapes discusses how it is difficult to tell whether or not animals perceive music in the same way that humans do: “Because animals’ cognitive abilities have not been fully understood, their creations can only be filtered through human ears and emotions” (Mapes, 2001).  Since music is an “anthropological concept”, humans have their own opinions on whether sounds are considered musical or just sounds (Mapes, 2001).   In other words, a sound that is considered aesthetically pleasing to humans may be completely different than a sound that is considered aesthetically pleasing to another species.  In Kenneally’s article, “Songs of Ourselves” the article states: “In the same way our scales derive from human utterances, a cat's idea of a good tune would derive from yowls and meows” (2003).  Nevertheless, the fact that animals are able to make sense of their own complex sounds shows that they have the cognitive ability at least to recognize patterns in pitch and rhythm. 

In the end, the perception of music in other animals is very unclear, just as it is hard to tell whether or not animals perceive their own form of speech. After all, there is no way for humans to know for certain.  Even so, it is evident that even if animals are unable to recognize the musicality of their communication, it can still be considered a form of music nonetheless. 

Posted by: Katherine Travis

References:

Mapes, J. (2001, January 5). Do animals have an innate sense of music? National Geographic. Retrieved on December 1, 2011, from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/01/0105biomusic.html.

Kenneally, C. (2003, November 9). Songs of ourselves. The Boston Globe.  Retrieved on  December 1, 2011, from http://www.boston.com/news/globe/ideas/articles/2003/11/09/songs_of_ourselves/.

by Katherine Travis

Why does pregnancy cause an increased sense of smell?

Many of those who are or have been pregnant claim that their sense of smell has increased in sensitivity.  Often, women claim they can smell foods and odors from a mile away.  In fact, a British retailer once employed pregnant women to smell wines and rate them due to their supposed heightened olfactory senses.  What is the truth behind this myth?  

Some researchers claim that the increased sensitivity is a defense mechanism for the fetus.  If a woman is turned off by an odor or smell, this serves as a warning for the mother to stay away from a particular food or substance.  In fact, this is one theory behind morning sickness.  If the mother’s body detects a substance that is perceived harmful to the fetus, then the mother is forced to rid the body of the substance.  Little data has validated this theory in empirical studies, although some researchers do agree there may be a correlation.  In a study investigating the correlation between olfactory senses and nausea, researchers found no difference in sensitivities to smell (Hummel, von Mering, & Koble, 2002).  

Another claim is that the heightened sense of smell is due to an increase in estrogen levels during pregnancy.  Studies have shown a positive correlation between estrogen levels and a heightened sensitivity to smell.  However, these findings are not limited to only pregnant women.  Women who are of post-pubescent age are generally able to detect smells better than men and post-menopausal women (Foley, 2010). 

Despite the claims of a heightened sensitivity to smell during pregnancy, researchers have found no evidence to support the claim that this is due to olfactory sensitivity.  In a study comparing olfactory performance between pregnant women and non-pregnant women, no difference was found between the two groups (Ochsenbein-Kolble, von Mering, Zimmermann, & Hummel, 2007).  In fact, the researchers found a slight decrease in sensitivity of pregnant women.  So why do two thirds of pregnant women claim they experience a higher sensitivity to smell during pregnancy?  The answer may lie in the cognitive processing of olfactory information that occur during pregnancy.  In the above studies, pregnant women seemed to differ in their “objective” sensitivity to smell rather than their “subjective” sensitivity, meaning pregnant women’s perception of increased sensitivity is due to changes in the brain (Kolble, et al, 2007).  More research is necessary to explain this phenomenon perhaps investigating the hormonal changes in the brain during pregnancy and how these changes perhaps “trick” the brain into believing pregnancy heightens the senses.

Elizabeth Brothers

Links:

http://tlc.howstuffworks.com/family/pregnancy-affect-senses-of-smell-and-taste.htm

References:

Edmonds, M. (2008). How does pregnancy affect the senses of smell and taste? How Stuff Works. Retrieved December 1, 2011 from http://tlc.howstuffworks.com/family/pregnancy-affect-senses-of-smell-and-taste.htm 

Foley, H. J., Matlin, M. W. (2010). Sensation and perception (5^th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education.

Hummel, T., von Mering, R., Kolble, N., 2002. Olfactory modulation of nausea during early pregnancy. International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology, 109, 1394-1397. doi: 10.1016/S1470-0328(02)02987-7

Kolble, N., von Mering, R., Zimmermann, R., Hummel, T., 2007. Changes in olfactory function in pregnancy and postpartum. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 97, 10-14. doi: 10.1016/j.ijgo.2006.12.009

Tobacco and Taste Sensitivity

Some people may experience a lower sensitivity to taste under certain conditions.  For instance, researchers and doctors often claim that smokers have a decreased sense of taste as a result of their nicotine use.  The widespread claim is that tobacco acts as an inhibitor of taste receptors and decreases the perception of taste on the taste buds, causing a higher threshold for taste than that of non-tobacco users.  In fact, many smokers who become non-smokers claim that they are able to taste foods much better than before they kicked the habit.  I’ve heard this often from ex-smokers as one of the benefits of smoking cessation.  Are non-smokers able to taste food better than smokers as the myth claims?  Studies investigating this subject indicate that there is actually no taste sensitivity differences between those who use tobacco and those who do not (Kahn, 2003).  One study indicates that nicotine causes a rise in blood sugar which lowers a tobacco users preference for sweet foods (Redington, 1983).  The study also suggests that perhaps this disregard for sweets is one reason why smokers typically have a lower body weight than non-smokers.  This can also explain why smokers tend to gain weight after quitting smoking.

Elizabeth Brothers

Links to research articles:

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15067831

http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/science/article/pii/0091305784902156

Khan, G.J., Mehmood, R., 2003. Effects of long-term use of tobacco on taste receptors and salivary secretion.  Retrieved November 30, 2011, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15067831

Redington, K., 1983. Taste differences between cigarette smokers and nonsmokers. Pharmacology Biochemisty and Behavior, 21, 203-208. doi: 0091-3057/84